Mesopotamian Women Held Power in Homes, Temples, and Trade, New Survey Shows
A study of ancient Mesopotamia reveals that women enjoyed considerable independence in various areas, including domestic life, economics, and religion, despite existing patriarchal laws. The Code of Ur-Nammu, dating back to around 2100 BC, conferred rights such as property ownership and the ability to serve as court witnesses. Women's autonomy was at its highest during the early Uruk Period but saw a decline until the 7th century AD. During the Assyrian Period, married women were required to wear veils, and slave women faced harsh penalties for infractions. The Code of Hammurabi offered protections, including death sentences for rapists of free virgins. Women were active in managing homes, leading the textile sector, and were influential in brewing. Noteworthy individuals include Enheduanna, the first named author, Queen Kubaba (circa 2400 BC), and Ninkasi. The majority of women were commoners.
Key facts
- The Code of Ur-Nammu, dating to around 2100 BC, is the oldest legal code addressing women's rights in ancient Mesopotamia.
- In the early Uruk Period of Sumer, women had the most freedom, but autonomy eroded until the end of the Sassanian Empire in the 7th century AD.
- By the Assyrian Period, married women and daughters were required to wear veils in public, while slave women and prostitutes were forbidden from veiling.
- Women could own and manage property, including slaves, serve as witnesses in courts, and own businesses.
- In the Old Assyrian Period (20th–18th centuries BC), a wife unable to bear children could be supplemented by a slave woman who remained a slave.
- Women dominated the textile industry and played a central role in brewing and selling beer; according to legend, Ninkasi discovered the malting process around 5300 BC.
- Queen Kubaba, Sumer's only female monarch to rule in her own right, was a tavern owner before ruling Kish around 2400 BC.
- Enheduanna, daughter of Sargon of Akkad, was chief priestess at Ur and the first named author in recorded history.
Entities
Artists
- Ninkasi
- Queen Kubaba
- Enheduanna
- Sargon of Akkad
- Shara-igizi-Abzu
- Edwin Long
Institutions
- The Collector
- Wikimedia Commons
- Geelong Gallery
- The Metropolitan Museum of Art
- Pergamon Museum
- Museum of Ancient Near East (Berlin)
- Pixels
Locations
- Sumer
- Akkad
- Babylon
- Assyria
- Uruk
- Kish
- Ur
- Mitanni Kingdom
- Mesopotamia
- Sassanian Empire
- Hurrians
- Germany
- Berlin
- Australia
- Geelong