Elizabethan England's 'Golden Age' Was No Golden Age for the Poor, New Historical Analysis Argues
In 1558, Elizabeth I Tudor became queen, taking the helm of a nation rife with religious strife. Her era is recognized for its cultural achievements, yet a recent study reveals that economic growth was inconsistent; the population of England surged from roughly three million in 1561 to more than four million by 1601. Between 1550 and 1600, grain production increased by 38%, but rising prices and declining wages diminished workers' buying power. The gentry thrived, while small-scale farmers struggled with debt and starvation due to four poor harvests in the 1590s. The 1559 Religious Settlement designated Elizabeth as 'Supreme Governor' of the Church, enforcing fines on recusants. Following her excommunication in 1570, fines escalated, resulting in the execution of 131 Catholic priests. Additionally, the 1563 Witchcraft Act triggered trials and executions, often driven by local disputes.
Key facts
- Elizabeth I Tudor ascended to the English throne in 1558.
- England's population grew from about three million in 1561 to more than four million by the end of Elizabeth's reign.
- Grain output increased by approximately 38% between 1550 and 1600.
- The 1559 Religious Settlement comprised the Act of Supremacy and the Act of Uniformity.
- Recusants were fined one shilling per missed Sunday service, later raised to 20 pounds a month.
- Pope Pius V excommunicated Elizabeth I in 1570.
- Between 1581 and 1603, 131 ordained Catholic priests were arrested and put to death.
- In 1566, three Chelmsford women—Elizabeth Francis, Agnes Waterhouse, and Joan Waterhouse—were tried for witchcraft; Agnes Waterhouse was hanged.
- The 1563 Witchcraft Act criminalized maleficium; Parliament repealed it in 1736.
- An estimated 500 people were executed for witchcraft overall.
Entities
Artists
- Elizabeth I Tudor
- Henry VIII
- Anne Boleyn
- Mary I
- Mary, Queen of Scots
- Edward VI
- William Harrison
- Edmund Dudley
- Henry VII
- Pope Pius V
- Olwen Hufton
- Christopher Haigh
- Keith E. Wrightson
- Keith Thomas
- Alan Macfarlane
- Elizabeth Francis
- Agnes Waterhouse
- Joan Waterhouse
- William Allen
- Levina Teerlinc
- Canaletto
- Joshua Reynolds
- J.E. Baker
- William Shakespeare
Institutions
- Catholic Church
- Privy Council
- Parliament
- Church of England
- National Portrait Gallery
- Westminster Abbey
- Sotheby's
- The Huntington
- British Library
- Library of Congress
- Yale University
- Oxford University Press
- The Collector
Locations
- England
- Rome
- Italy
- Chelmsford
- Spain
- London
- Los Angeles
- Washington DC