Thirteen Ottoman Sultans Who Shaped Six Centuries of Empire

Over a span of 600 years, the Ottoman Empire was governed by 36 sultans, with thirteen pivotal leaders influencing its trajectory. Osman I established the empire circa 1299. In the 1360s, Murad I ventured into Europe, seizing Adrianople, but was killed at Kosovo in 1389. Bayezid I triumphed over a Crusader force at Nicopolis in 1396, yet was captured by Timur in 1402, sparking a civil war. By 1413, Mehmed I reestablished unity. Mehmed II's conquest of Constantinople in 1453 marked the fall of the Byzantine Empire. Selim I increased the empire's size by 70%, while Suleiman I harmonized legal systems and supported the arts. Mahmud II modernized the military but lost land. Abdul Hamid II encountered uprisings and was ousted in 1909. The sultanate was dissolved on November 1, 1922.