The Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the End of Divine Right

The Glorious Revolution of 1688-1689 marked the end of the divine right of kings in England. King James II, a Catholic in a Protestant nation, believed his authority came directly from God and ignored Parliament, issuing Declarations of Indulgence to suspend laws against Catholics. Tensions escalated in June 1688 when the birth of his son, James Francis Edward Stuart, threatened a Catholic dynasty. On June 30, the Seven Bishops were acquitted after refusing to read the Declaration, and the Immortal Seven invited William of Orange to invade. William landed at Torbay on November 5 with 450 ships and 15,000 troops. Key military figures, including Lord Churchill, defected to William. James fled to France on December 23, throwing the Great Seal into the Thames. The 1689 Convention declared James had abdicated, and William and Mary became joint sovereigns after signing the Declaration of Rights. The Bill of Rights in December 1689 formally ended divine right, establishing constitutional monarchy.