Ceuta and Melilla: Morocco's 'Two Captive Women' and the Fight Over Enclaves

Morocco has long claimed the Spanish enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla, viewing them as the last occupied territories on its soil. The dispute dates back to 1415 when Portugal seized Ceuta, marking the start of European expansion, and 1497 when Melilla fell to Spain. Morocco's narrative frames these cities as symbols of colonial resistance, with poets and writers like Ahmed al-Majjati and Ibrahim al-Hajri using them as allegories for lost land and wounded dignity. The metaphor 'al-asiratan' (the two captives) pervades Moroccan literature, as documented by scholar Mohammed Ajbilou. In recent years, the enclaves have become flashpoints for migration, with tens of thousands attempting to cross into Ceuta in late July 2023, leading to a diplomatic crisis. Moroccan Prime Minister Saadeddine El Othmani declared the cities 'Moroccan like the Sahara' in 2020, straining relations with Madrid. Spain maintains that its presence predates its colonial era in Morocco and that the cities are integral to the Spanish state. The dispute also echoes Spain's own claim to Gibraltar, which it seeks from Britain using similar historical arguments. Moroccan writer Tahar Ben Jelloun, a Goncourt laureate, has called for the return of the cities, while former royal spokesman Hassan Aourid criticized Morocco's internal policies, linking migration to domestic inequality. The enclaves remain a symbol of unresolved colonial history and a focal point of migration politics.