Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead: Spells for the Afterlife

The Book of the Dead, a collection of ritual spells guiding souls through the afterlife, evolved from the Coffin Texts (c. 2000 BC) and Pyramid Texts (c. 2400 BC). Originally called 'Spells of Coming Forth by Day,' it was renamed in 1842 by German Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius. No canonical version existed; texts were personalized for individuals, written in hieroglyphic or hieratic on papyrus or linen shrouds. The afterlife was initially reserved for royalty, but by the New Kingdom, high officials and eventually commoners could access these texts, though costs were prohibitive—up to half a laborer's annual wage. Shorter, cheaper versions later emerged. The journey through the Duat involved passing guarded pylons by reciting secret names, with spells for protection and transformation. The final trial, the Weighing of the Heart, judged the deceased against Ma'at (truth/justice). The heart was weighed by Anubis and Horus, recorded by Thoth; if heavier, Ammut devoured the soul; if balanced, the soul joined Osiris. The Papyrus of Ani (c. 1250 BC, 19th Dynasty) is the finest known copy, 78 feet long, acquired for the British Museum in 1888 by E.A. Wallis Budge through dubious means. Created for Theban scribe Ani and his wife Tutu, a 'Singer of Amun,' it involved multiple scribes and artists. The Book of the Dead influenced later religious ideas, including a lake of fire and the notion that earthly deeds determine afterlife fate.